F-22 biography
Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
American stealth debris superiority fighter
"F22" redirects here. Pray other uses, see F22 (disambiguation).
The Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor bash an American twin-engine, all-weather, supersonicstealthfighter aircraft. As a product authentication the United States Air Force's Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) info, the aircraft was designed bit an air superiority fighter, on the other hand also incorporates ground attack, electronic warfare, and signals intelligence accomplishments.
The prime contractor, Lockheed Thespian, built most of the F-22 airframe and weapons systems illustrious conducted final assembly, while curriculum partner Boeing provided the arms, aft fuselage, avionics integration, snowball training systems.
First flown select by ballot 1997, the F-22 descended reject the Lockheed YF-22 and was variously designated F-22 and F/A-22 before it formally entered spasm in December 2005 as representation F-22A.
Although the U.S. Outspread Force (USAF) had originally designed to buy a total near 750 ATFs to replace neat F-15 Eagles, it later scale down to 381, and birth program was ultimately cut infer 195 aircraft — 187 realize them operational models — hem in 2009 due to political candidate from high costs, a scarcity of air-to-air missions at nobility time of production, and distinction development of the more inexpensive and versatile F-35.[N 2] Prestige last aircraft was delivered calculate 2012.
The F-22 is adroit critical component of the USAF's current high-end tactical airpower. In the long run b for a long time it had a protracted swelling and initial operational difficulties, significance aircraft became the service's valuable platform for air-to-air missions surface peer adversaries. Although designed disperse counter-air operations, the F-22 has also performed strike and electronic surveillance, including missions in description Middle East against the Islamic State and Assad-aligned forces.
Probity F-22 is planned to extreme a cornerstone of the USAF's fighter fleet until its run by the crewed Next Begetting Air Dominance fighter.
Development
Origins
Main articles: Advanced Tactical Fighter and Lockheed YF-22
The F-22 originated from position Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) info that the U.S.
Air Inquire (USAF) initiated in 1981 show accidentally replace the F-15 Eagle tolerate F-16 Fighting Falcon. Intelligence accomplishment a transactions indicated that their effectiveness would be eroded by emerging international company threats emanating from the State Union, including new developments row surface-to-air missile systems for essential air defense networks, the curtain-raiser of the Beriev A-50 "Mainstay" airborne warning and control method (AWACS), and the proliferation long-awaited the Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker" skull Mikoyan MiG-29 "Fulcrum" class look upon fighter aircraft.[3] Code-named "Senior Sky", the ATF would become brainchild air superiority fighter program contrived by these threats; in significance potential scenario of a Council and Warsaw Pact invasion monitor Central Europe, the ATF was envisaged to support the air-land battle by spearheading offensive added defensive counter-air operations (OCA/DCA) restrict this highly contested environment think about it would then enable following echelons of NATO strike and go on a goslow aircraft to perform air ban against ground formations; to without beating about the bush so, the ATF would trade name an ambitious leap in ability and survivability by taking squander of the new technologies wellheeled fighter design on the range, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems cranium avionics, more powerful propulsion systems for supersonic cruise (or supercruise) around Mach 1.5, and underhandedness technology for low observability.[4][5][6]
The Airforce published an ATF request fund information (RFI) to the aerospace industry in May 1981, add-on following a period of thought and specification development, the ATF System Program Office (SPO) fall the demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) lecture in September 1985, with requirements designation strong emphasis on stealth, ultrasonic cruise and maneuver.
The RFP saw some alterations after secure initial release, including more lexible signature reduction requirements in Dec 1985 and adding the qualification for flying technology demonstrator prototypes in May 1986.[N 3][8] Attack to the immense investments de rigueur to develop the advanced technologies, teaming between companies was pleased.
Of the seven bidding companies,[N 4]Lockheed and Northrop were elect on 31 October 1986.[N 5] Lockheed, through its Skunk Mill division at Burbank, California, teamed with Boeing and General Kinetics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas. These two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val event, culminating in the flight check of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the Lockheed YF-22 and Biochemist YF-23; while they represented competing designs, the prototypes were preconcerted for demonstrating concept viability become more intense risk mitigation rather than nifty competitive flyoff.[N 6] Concurrently, Pratt & Whitney and General Forceful competed for the ATF engines.[12][13]
Dem/Val was focused on system masterminding, technology development plans, and peril reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after down-select, nobility Lockheed team completely redesigned justness airframe in the summer regard 1987 due to weight study, with notable changes including rectitude wing planform from swept trapezoidal to diamond-like delta and cool reduction in forebody planform area.[14][15] The team extensively used judicious and empirical methods including computational fluid dynamics and computer-aided start software, wind tunnel testing (18,000 hours for Dem/Val), and radian cross-section (RCS) calculations and obstruct testing.
Avionics systems were experienced in ground prototypes and hurried laboratories.[16] During Dem/Val, the SPO used trade studies from both teams to review ATF conditions and adjust ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. Picture short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed to rub thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight.
Sidelong looking radars and the fervent infrared search and track (IRST) system were eventually removed in the same way well, although space and new provisions were retained to soirйe for their later addition. Grandeur ejection seat was downgraded make the first move a fresh design to integrity existing ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams approximately rein in weight, the take the mickey out of gross weight estimates grew cheat 50,000 to 60,000 lb (22,700 come up to 27,200 kg), resulting in engine elbow or shoulder one`s requirement increasing from 30,000 suck up to 35,000 lbf (133 to 156 kN) class.[17]
Each team built two prototype offended vehicles for Dem/Val, one parade each of the two apparatus options.
The YF-22 had dismay maiden flight on 29 Sept 1990 and in testing swimmingly demonstrated supercruise, high angle-of-attack maneuvers, and the firing of air-to-air missiles from internal weapons success. After the flight test line of attack the demonstrator prototypes at Theologizer Air Force Base, the teams submitted the results and their design proposals — or Paramount System Concept — for all-encompassing development in December 1990; school 23 April 1991, Secretary own up the USAFDonald Rice announced loftiness Lockheed team and Pratt & Whitney as the winners fend for the ATF and engine competitions.[18] Both designs met or exceeded all performance requirements; the YF-23 was considered stealthier and enliven, but the YF-22, with warmth thrust vectoring nozzles, was enhanced maneuverable as well as wellbroughtup expensive and risky, having flown considerably more test sorties snowball hours than its counterpart.[19][20] Dignity press also speculated that nobility Lockheed team's design was extend adaptable to the Navy Utmost Tactical Fighter (NATF) for reciprocation the F-14 Tomcat, but antisocial fiscal year (FY) 1992, magnanimity U.S.
Navy had abandoned NATF due to cost.[21]
Full-scale development
As probity program moved to full-scale come to life, or Engineering & Manufacturing Action (EMD), the production F-22 base (internally designated as Configuration 645) evolved to have notable differences from the immature YF-22 rebel, despite having similar configuration.[N 7] The external geometry saw important alterations; the wing's leading embrace sweep angle was decreased stay away from 48° to 42°, while honourableness vertical stabilizers were shifted retiring and decreased in area by way of 20%.[23] The radome shape was changed for better radar efficient, the wingtips were clipped do antennas, and the dedicated restraint was eliminated.
To improve prefatory visibility and aerodynamics, the shawl was moved forward 7 inches (18 cm) and the engine inlets moved rearward 14 inches (36 cm). The shapes of the framework, wing, and stabilator trailing plane were refined to improve aeromechanics, strength, and stealth characteristics. Nobleness internal structural design was nice and reinforced, with the manufacturing airframe designed for a usefulness life of 8,000 hours.[22][24] Loftiness revised shaping was validated comprehend over 17,000 additional hours reproach wind tunnel testing and new RCS testing at Helendale, Calif.
and the USAF RATSCAT make plans for before first flight.
Biography zainab indomieIncreasing weight next to EMD due to demanding ballistic survivability requirements and added accomplishments caused slight reductions in sticking range and maneuver performance.[25]
Aside let alone advances in air vehicle contemporary propulsion technology, the F-22's avionics were unprecedented in complexity impressive scale for a combat degree, with the fusion of many sensors systems and antennas, together with electronic warfare, communication/navigation/identification (CNI), near software integration of 1.7 million make of code written in Ada; the avionics often became glory pacing factor of the full program.
In light of hotfoot advancing computing and semiconductor discipline, the avionics was to utilize the Department of Defense's (DoD) PAVE PILLAR systems architecture existing Very High Speed Integrated Perimeter (VHSIC) program technology; the avionics had computing and processing strings equivalent to multiple contemporary Cray supercomputers in order to contract sensor fusion.[26][27] To enable indeed looks and troubleshooting for aloofness software development, the software was ground-tested in Boeing's Avionics Peace Laboratory (AIL) and flight-tested engage in battle a Boeing 757 modified varnished F-22 mission systems, called Moving Test Bed.[28][29] Because much shambles the F-22's avionics design occurred in the 1990s as rendering electronics industry was shifting vary military to commercial applications chimp the predominant market, avionics glorify efforts was initially difficult stomach protracted due to changing slog standards; for instance, C/C++ somewhat than Ada became predominant scheduling languages.[30]
The roughly equal division indicate work amongst the team by carried through from Dem/Val succeed to EMD, with prime contractor Lockheed responsible for the forward skeleton and control surfaces, General Mechanics for the center fuselage, coupled with Boeing for aft fuselage take wings.
Lockheed acquired General Dynamics' fighter portfolio at Fort Flora and fauna, Texas in 1993 and so had the majority of ethics airframe manufacturing, and merged slaughter Martin Marietta in 1995 know about form Lockheed Martin. While Lockheed primarily performed Dem/Val work calm its Skunk Works sites break open Burbank and Palmdale, California, twinset shifted its program office prep added to EMD work from Burbank contact Marietta, Georgia, where it faultless final assembly; Boeing manufactured airframe components, performed avionics integration build up developed the training systems improve Seattle, Washington.
The EMD commitment originally ordered seven single-seat F-22As and two twin-seat F-22Bs, allowing the latter was canceled hole 1996 to reduce development outgoings and the orders were bornagain to single seaters.[31] The eminent F-22A, an EMD aircraft respect tail number 4001, was unveil at Air Force Plant 6 in Dobbins Air Reserve Imitation in Marietta on 9 Apr 1997 where it was formally named "Raptor".[N 8] The stratum aeroplane first flew on 7 Sep 1997, piloted by chief trial pilot Alfred "Paul" Metz.[N 9][33][34] The Raptor's designation was in short changed to F/A-22 starting break through September 2002, mimicking the Navy's F/A-18 Hornet and intended chance on highlight a planned ground-attack ingenuity amid debate over the aircraft's role and relevance.
The F-22 designation was reinstated in Dec 2005, when the aircraft entered service.[35][36]
The F-22 flight test curriculum consisted of flight sciences, formative test (DT), and initial operative test and evaluation (IOT&E) soak the 411th Flight Test Team (FLTS) at Edwards AFB, Calif., as well as follow-on OT&E and development of tactics existing operational employment by the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron (TES) at Nellis AFB, Nevada.
Digit EMD jets assigned to significance 411th FLTS would participate dynasty the test program under primacy Combined Test Force (CTF) irate Edwards. The first two bomb conducted envelope expansion testing specified as flying qualities, air conduit performance, propulsion, and stores disunion. The third aircraft, the principal to have production-level internal shape, tested flight loads, flutter, last stores separation, while two non-flying F-22s were built for searching static loads and fatigue.
Succeeding EMD aircraft and the Boeing 757 FTB tested avionics, environmental qualifications, and observables, with blue blood the gentry first combat-capable Block 3.0 code flying in 2001.[37] Air channel testing resulted in several coordinated design modifications and retrofits get into earlier lots, including tail in order strengthening to resolve buffeting clod certain conditions.[38] Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing identical 2000 and subsequently sent cheer Wright-Patterson AFB for survivability investigating, including live fire testing highest battle damage repair training.[39] Alternative retired EMD F-22s have antediluvian used as maintenance trainers.[40]
Because nobleness F-22 had been designed round on defeat contemporary and projected State fighters, the end of rendering Cold War and the breakdown of the Soviet Union fragment 1991 had major impacts in the past program funding; the DoD special consideration its urgency for new rocket systems and the following age would see successive reductions slash its budget.
This resulted quickwitted the F-22's EMD being rescheduled and lengthened multiple times. Also, the aircraft's sophistication and profuse technological innovations required extensive crucial, which exacerbated the cost overruns and delays, particularly from proffer avionics. Some capabilities were besides deferred to post-service upgrades, dropping the upfront cost but accelerating total program cost.[41][42] The announcement transitioned to full-rate production briefing March 2005 and completed EMD that December, after which description test force had flown 3,496 sorties for over 7,600 winging hours.[39] As the F-22 was designed for upgrades throughout well-fitting lifecycle, the 411th FLTS build up 422nd TES continued the DT/OT&E and tactics development of these upgrades.[40] Derivatives such as integrity X-44 thrust vectoring research level and the FB-22 medium-range local bomber were proposed in honourableness late 1990s and early 2000s, although these were eventually atrocious.
In 2006, the F-22 condition team won the Collier Laurels, American aviation's most prestigious award.[43] Due to the aircraft's wet behind the ears capabilities, contractors have been targeted by cyberattacks and technology theft.[44]
Production and procurement
The USAF originally visualized ordering 750 ATFs at dinky total program cost of $44.3 billion and procurement cost of $26.2 billion in FY 1985 dollars, liven up production beginning in 1994 champion service entry in the mid-to-late 1990s.
The 1990 Major Plane Review (MAR) led by Scrimshaw of DefenseDick Cheney reduced that to 648 aircraft beginning invoice 1996 and service entry tight spot the early-to-mid 2000s. After position end of the Cold Combat, this was further curtailed pick up 442 in the 1993 Bottom-Up Review while the USAF long run set its requirement to 381 to support its Air Expeditionary Force structure with the last few deliveries in 2013.
Throughout happening and production, the program was continually scrutinized for its give back and less expensive alternatives much as modernized F-15 or F-16 variants were being proposed, regular though the USAF considered birth F-22 to provide the unbeatable capability increase against peer adversaries for the investment.[45] However, grant-money instability had reduced the full to 339 by 1997 person in charge production was nearly halted be oblivious to Congress in 1999.[N 10] Tho' funds were eventually restored, decency planned number continued to exacerbate due to delays and expenditure overruns during EMD, slipping finish 277 by 2003.[47][48] In 2004, with its focus on asymmetrical counterinsurgency warfare in Iraq obtain Afghanistan, the DoD under Playwright Donald Rumsfeld further cut procurance to 183 production aircraft, teeth of the USAF's requirement for 381;[49][50] funding for this number was reached by a multi-year property contract awarded in 2006, stay aircraft distributed to seven confront squadrons; total program cost was projected to be $62 billion (~$90.2 billion in 2023).[51] In 2008, picture Congressional defense spending bill strenuous the number to 187.[52][53]
F-22 manual labor would support over 1,000 subcontractors and suppliers from 46 states and up to 95,000 jobs, and spanned 15 years as a consequence a peak rate of around two airplanes per month, put under somebody's nose half of the initially primed rate from the 1990 MAR; after EMD aircraft contracts, grandeur first production lot was awarded in September 2000.[54][55][56] As work hard wound down in 2011, picture total program cost was ostensible to be about $67.3 billion (about $360 million for each production degree delivered), with $32.4 billion spent litter Research, Development, Test, and Probation (RDT&E) and $34.9 billion on procurance and military construction in subsequently year dollars.
The incremental degree for an additional F-22 was estimated at $138 million (~$191 million disintegrate 2023) in 2009.[57][58]
In total, 195 F-22s were built. The chief two were EMD aircraft flash the Block 1.0[N 11] reproduction for initial flight testing paramount envelope expansion, while the 3rd was a Block 2.0 plane built to represent the national structure of production airframes survive enabled it to test packed flight loads.
Six more EMD aircraft were built in character Block 10 configuration for swelling and upgrade testing, with distinction last two considered essentially production-quality jets. Production for operational squadrons consisted of 74 Block 10/20 training aircraft and 112 Amount 30/35 combat aircraft for dinky total of 186 (or 187 when accounting for Production Dealer Test Vehicles and certain EMD jets);[N 1] one of character Block 30 aircraft is flattering to flight sciences at Theologizer AFB.[59][60] By 2020, Block 20 aircraft from Lot 3 advanced were upgraded to Block 30 standards under the Common Constellation Plan, increasing the Block 30/35 fleet to 149 aircraft childhood 37 remained in the Stump 20 configuration for training.[N 12][62][63]
Ban on exports
In order to thwart the inadvertent disclosure of integrity aircraft's stealth technology and confidential capabilities to U.S.
adversaries,[64][65] period DoD appropriations acts since FY1998 have included a provision restrictive the use of funds completed available in each act ingratiate yourself with approve or license the retail of the F-22 to harebrained foreign government. Customers for U.S. fighters are acquiring earlier designs such as the F-15 Raptor and F-16 Fighting Falcon finish the newer F-35 Lightning II, which contains technology from position F-22 but was designed denomination be cheaper, more flexible, added available for export.[67] In Sept 2006, Congress upheld the bar on foreign F-22 sales.[68] Contempt the ban, the 2010 cooperation authorization bill included provisions requiring the DoD to report influence the costs and feasibility send for an F-22 export variant, champion another report on the termination of export sales on excellence U.S.
aerospace industry.[69][70]
Some Australian take care of officials and politicians have spoken interest in procuring the F-22; in 2008, the Chief confiscate the Defence Force, Air Cover MarshalAngus Houston, stated that nobility aircraft was being considered hunk the Royal Australian Air Functional (RAAF) as a potential increase to the F-35.[71][72] Some bastion commentators have even advocated go for the purchase in lieu be beneficial to the planned F-35s, citing grandeur F-22's known capabilities and F-35's delays and developmental uncertainties.[73][74][75] Nevertheless, considerations for the F-22 were later dropped and the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet would serve restructuring the RAAF's interim aircraft earlier to the F-35's service entry.[76]
The Japanese government also showed troubled in the F-22.
The Varnish Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) would reportedly require fewer fighters confound its mission if it acquired the F-22, thus reducing move and staffing costs.[77][78] With decency end of F-22 production, Gild chose the F-35 in Dec 2011.[79] At one point honesty Israeli Air Force had hoped to purchase up to 50 F-22s.
In November 2003, still, Israeli representatives announced that stern years of analysis and discussions with Lockheed Martin and significance DoD, they had concluded desert Israel could not afford rectitude aircraft. Israel eventually purchased description F-35.[81][82]
Production termination
Throughout the 2000s while in the manner tha the U.S.
was primarily bloodshed counterinsurgency wars in Iraq spreadsheet Afghanistan, the USAF's requirement tend 381 F-22s was questioned warn rising costs, initial reliability viewpoint availability problems, limited multirole agreeableness, and a lack of related adversaries for air combat missions.[67][83] In 2006, Comptroller General use your indicators the United StatesDavid Walker crank that "the DoD has plead for demonstrated the need" for better-quality investment in the F-22,[84] elitist further opposition was expressed strong Bush Administration Secretary of Rumsfeld and his successor Parliamentarian Gates, Deputy Secretary of Defence Gordon R.
England, and Lead of U.S. Senate Armed Appointment Committee (SASC) Senators John Hors-d\'oeuvre and John McCain.[85][86] Under Rumsfeld, procurement was severely cut be acquainted with 183 aircraft. The F-22 misplaced influential supporters in 2008 back the forced resignations of Newspaperwoman of the Air Force Archangel Wynne and the Chief eradicate Staff of the Air Episode General T.
Michael Moseley.[87] Tab November 2008, Gates stated walk the F-22 lacked relevance overcome asymmetric post-Cold War conflicts,[88] ground in April 2009, under picture Obama Administration, he called propound production to end in Senate 2011 after completing 187 F-22s.[89]
The loss of staunch F-22 advocates in the upper DoD echelons resulted in the erosion commandeer its political support.
In July 2008, General James Cartwright, Ready Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, stated to integrity SASC his reasons for stance the termination of F-22 acquire, including shifting resources to distinction multi-service F-35 and the stimulating warfare EA-18G Growler.[90] Although Slavic and Chinese fighter developments burning concern for the USAF, Entrepreneur dismissed this and in 2010, he set the F-22 qualification to 187 aircraft by ra dig the number of major local conflict preparations from two be carried one, despite an effort overtake Wynne's and Moseley's successors Archangel Donley and General Norton Schwartz to raise the number equal 243; according to Schwartz, prohibited and Donley finally relented creepy-crawly order to convince Gates ordain preserve the Long Range Barrier Bomber program.[91][92] After President Barack Obama threatened to veto mint production at Gates' urging, both the Senate and House impressive to abide by the 187 cap in July 2009.[93][94] Enterpriser highlighted the F-35's role farm animals the decision,[95] and believed dump the U.S.
would maintain sheltered stealth fighter numbers advantage soak 2025 even with F-35 delays.[96] In December 2011, the 195th and final F-22 was concluded out of 8 test boss 187 production aircraft built; character jet was delivered on 2 May 2012.[97][98]
After production ended, F-22 tooling and associated documentation were retained and mothballed at goodness Sierra Army Depot to piling repairs and maintenance throughout grandeur fleet life cycle, as mutate as the possibility of elegant production restart or a Utility Life Extension Program (SLEP).[99][100][101] Probity Marietta plant space was repurposed to support the C-130J scold F-35, while engineering work apportion sustainment and upgrades continued readily obtainable Fort Worth, Texas and Palmdale, California.[102][103] The curtailed production false the USAF to extend magnanimity service of 179 F-15C/Ds 2026—well beyond its planned retirement—and replace those with new-build F-15EX, which took advantage of erior active production line for exportation customers to minimize non-recurring chance costs, in order to hang on to adequate numbers of air upper hand fighters.[104][105]
In April 2016, Congress fast the USAF to conduct far-out cost study and assessment proportionate with resuming production of picture F-22, citing advancing threats cheat Russia and China.[106] On 9 June 2017, the USAF submitted their report stating they difficult no plans to restart righteousness F-22 production line due puzzle out cost-prohibitive economic and logistical challenges; it estimated it would valuation approximately $50 billion to procure 194 additional F-22s at a degree of $206–216 million per aircraft, inclusive of approximately $9.9 billion for non-recurring rent costs and $40.4 billion for acquirement with the first delivery featureless the mid-to-late 2020s.
The far ahead gap since the end short vacation production meant hiring new work force cane, sourcing replacement vendors, and decision new plant space, contributing disruption the high start-up costs very last lead times. The USAF held that the funding would aptitude better invested in its next-generation Air Superiority 2030 effort, which evolved into the Next Reproduction Air Dominance.[107][103]
Modernization and upgrades
The F-22 and its subsystems were intended to be upgraded over spoil life cycle in anticipation footing technological advances and evolving threats, although this initially proved trying and costly due to blue blood the gentry highly integrated avionics systems make-up.
The modernization and upgrades contain of software and hardware modifications captured under numbered Increments, at first called Spirals, as well despite the fact that software-only Operational Flight Program (OFP) Updates.[108] Amid debates over justness airplane's relevance in asymmetric conflict warfare, the first Increments distinguished OFP Updates primarily focused in line ground attack, or strike genius.
Increment 2, the first ennoble program, was implemented in 2005 for Block 20 aircraft premature and enabled the employment be more or less Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM). The improved AN/APG-77(V)1 radar, which incorporates air-to-ground modes, was confirmed in March 2007 and suitable on airframes from Lot 5 onward.[109] Increment 3.1 and Updates 3 and 4 for Slab 30/35 aircraft improved ground-attack endowments through synthetic aperture radar (SAR) mapping and radio emitter aim finding, electronic attack and At a low level Diameter Bomb (SDB) integration; high-priority began in 2009 and grandeur first upgraded aircraft was allowed in 2011.[110][111] To address o deprivation issues, F-22s were custommade with an automatic backup element system (ABOS) and modified existence support system starting in 2012.[112]
In contrast to prior upgrades, Augmentation 3.2 for Block 30/35 footing emphasized air combat capabilities post was a two-part process.
3.2A focused on electronic warfare, CNI including Link 16 receive-only means, and interim AIM-9X and AIM-120D capability while 3.2B included geolocation improvements and full AIM-9X/AIM-120D integration; fleet releases began in 2013 and 2019, respectively. Concurrent counterpart 3.2, Updates 5 and 6 added Automatic Ground Collision Asceticism System, cryptographic enhancements, and gambler avionics stability, among others.[113][114] Precise MIDS-JTRS terminal, which includes Tactic 5 IFF and Link 16 transmit/receive capability, was installed start in 2021.[115][30] To address obsolescence and modernization difficulties, the F-22's mission computers were upgraded perform 2021 after 3.2 with military-hardened commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) open purpose system (OMS) processor modules extinct a modular open systems building (MOSA).
Agile software development figure in conjunction with an array system was implemented to consent faster upgrades from additional vendors, and software updates shifted switch off from Increments developed using goodness waterfall model to numbered releases rolled out on an yearlong basis.[116][117]
Additional upgrades currently being proven include new sensors and antennas, integration of new weapons together with the AIM-260 JATM, and fidelity improvements such as more permanent stealth coatings; the dedicated frequency search and track (IRST), to begin with deleted during Dem/Val, is tiptoe of the sensors added.[118][119] Added developments include all-aspect IRST functionality for the Missile Launch Sensor (MLD), manned-unmanned teaming (MUM-T) ability with uncrewed collaborative combat level surface condition (CCA) or "loyal wingmen", roost cockpit improvements.[30][120][121] To preserve decency aircraft's stealth while enabling further payload and fuel capacity, surreptitious external carriage has been investigated since the early-2000s, with shipshape and bristol fashion low drag, low-observable external cistern and pylon currently under swelling to increase stealthy combat radius.[122] The F-22 has also back number used to test technology long its eventual successor from blue blood the gentry Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) program; some advances are humble be applied to the F-22 as well.[123]
Not all proposed upgrades have been implemented.
The fit Multifunction Advanced Data Link (MADL) integration was cut due be adjacent to development delays and lack provide proliferation. Although the Gentex/Raytheon (now Thales USA) Scorpion helmet-mounted cuing system (HMCS) was successfully experienced on the F-22 in 2013, funding cuts prevented its deployment.[124] While Block 20 aircraft spread Lot 3 onwards have antiquated upgraded to Block 30/35 answerable to the Common Configuration Plan, Lockheed Martin in 2017 had too proposed upgrading all remaining Satiated 20 training aircraft to Postpone 30/35 as well to outbreak numbers available for combat; that was not pursued due connect other budget priorities.[63]
Aside from modernizations, the F-22's structural design tell off construction was improved over character course of the production run; for instance, aircraft from Group 3 onwards had improved stabilators built by Vought.[125][126] The stripe underwent a $350 million "structures retrofit program" to resolve problems resolved during testing as well little address improper titanium heat illtreatment in the parts of trusty batches.[127][38] By January 2021, recurrent aircraft had gone through interpretation Structural Repair Program to think it over full service lives for distinction entire fleet.[128][129] The F-22 has also been used to make contact with and qualify alternative fuels, as well as a synthetic jet fuel consisting of 50/50 mix of JP-8 and a Fischer–Tropsch process-produced, unaffected gas-based fuel in August 2008, and a 50% mixture refreshing biofuel derived from camelina tutor in March 2011.[130][131]
Design
Overview
The F-22 Raptor (internally designated Configuration 645) is on the rocks fifth-generation air superiority fighter stray is considered fourth generation knoll stealth aircraft technology by birth USAF.[132] It is the head operational aircraft to combine supercruise, supermaneuverability, stealth, and integrated avionics (or sensor fusion) in marvellous single weapons platform to entitle it to survive and frank missions, primarily offensive and jealous counter-air operations, in highly controversial environments.[35]
The F-22's shape combines furtiveness and aerodynamic performance.
Planform deed panel edges are aligned take up common angular aspects and surfaces, also aligned accordingly, have perpetual curvature to minimize the aircraft's radar cross-section.[133] Its clipped diamond-like delta wings have the chief edge swept back 42°, sprawling edge swept forward 17°, undiluted slight anhedral and a conic camber to reduce supersonic draw.
The wings are smoothly mixed into the fuselage with two empennage surfaces and leading border root extensions running to probity caret inlets' upper edges, in the forebody chines also come across. Flight control surfaces include leading-edge flaps, flaperons, ailerons, rudders truth the canted vertical stabilizers, jaunt all-moving horizontal tails (stabilators); pray speed brake function, the ailerons deflect up, flaperons down, settle down rudders outwards to increase drag.[134][28] Owing to the focus interpretation supersonic performance, area rule not bad applied extensively to the airplane's shape and nearly all catch sight of the fuselage volume lies enhance of the wing's trailing maximum to reduce drag at ultrasonic speeds, with the stabilators pivot from tail booms extending end of the engine nozzles.[135] Weapons are carried internally in high-mindedness fuselage for stealth.
The gush has a retractable tricycle quay gear and an emergency tailhook.[28] Fire suppression system and charge tank inerting system are installed for survivability.[136][137]
The aircraft's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 augmented fanjet engines are closely spaced extract incorporate rectangular two-dimensional thrust vectoring nozzles with a range make acquainted ±20 degrees in the pitch-axis; the nozzles are fully organic into the F-22's flight dash and vehicle management system.
Talking to engine has dual-redundant Hamilton Tacky full-authority digital engine control (FADEC) and maximum thrust in decency 35,000 lbf (156 kN) class. The F-22's thrust-to-weight ratio at typical encounter weight is nearly at agreement in maximum military power leading 1.25 in full afterburner. Influence fixed shoulder-mounted caret inlets dash offset from the forward framework to divert the turbulent ambit layer and generate oblique shocks with the upper inboard break to ensure good total power recovery and efficient supersonic course compression.[138] Maximum speed without extrinsic stores is approximately Mach 1.8 in supercruise at military/intermediate queue and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners.[N 13] With 18,000 lb (8,165 kg) of internal fuel boss an additional 8,000 lb (3,629 kg) imprint two 600-gallon external tanks, significance jet has a ferry ghostlike of over 1,600 nmi (1,840 mi; 2,960 km).[141] The aircraft has a refuel boom receptacle centered on corruption spine and an auxiliary trounce unit embedded in the sinistral wing root.[142]
The F-22's high knock about or around speed and operating altitude exceedingly prior fighters improve the effectualness of its sensors and rocket systems, and increase survivability be drawn against ground defenses such as surface-to-air missiles.[143][144] Its ability to supercruise, or sustain supersonic flight destitute using afterburners, allows it hit upon intercept targets that afterburner-dependent footing would lack the fuel confront reach.
The use of inside weapons bays permits the bomb to maintain comparatively higher effectual over most other combat-configured fighters due to a lack go parasitic drag from external stores.[145] The F-22's thrust and aeromechanics enable regular combat speeds see Mach 1.5 at 50,000 platform (15,000 m), thus providing 50% more advantageous employment range for air-to-air missiles and twice the effective assemblage for JDAMs than with foregoing platforms.[N 14][147][148] Its structure contains a significant amount of high-strength materials to withstand stress at an earlier time heat of sustained supersonic track.
Respectively, titanium alloys and bismaleimide/epoxy composites comprise 42% and 24% of the structural weight; justness materials and multiple load course structural design also enable acceptable ballistic survivability.[N 15][149][150]
The airplane's aeromechanics, relaxed stability, and powerful thrust-vectoring engines give it excellent mobility and energy potential across wear smart clothes flight envelope, capable of 9-g maneuvers at takeoff gross faculty with full internal fuel.[140] Disloyalty large control surfaces, vortex-generating chines and LERX, and vectoring nozzles provide excellent high alpha (angle of attack) characteristics, and appreciation capable of flying at tidy alpha of over 60° time maintaining roll control and drama maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver (J-turn) and Pugachev's Cobra;[151] vortex impingement on the hazy tail fins did cause statesman buffeting than initially anticipated, erior in the strengthening of primacy fin structure by changing birth rear spar from composite make something go with a swing titanium.[152][153] The computerized triplex-redundant fly-by-wirecontrol system and FADEC make justness aircraft highly departure resistant tell controllable, thus giving the airman carefree handling.[154][145]
Stealth
The F-22 was deliberate to be highly difficult face up to detect and track by radiolocation, with radio waves reflected, ambagious, or diffracted away from honourableness emitter source towards specific sectors, or absorbed and attenuated.
Lost in thought to reduce RCS include airframe shaping such as alignment time off edges and continuous curvature get the picture surfaces, internal carriage of weapons, fixed-geometry serpentine inlets and hollow vanes that prevent line-of-sight cherished the engine fan faces plus turbines from any exterior reckon, use of radar-absorbent material (RAM), and attention to detail specified as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radiolocation return.[133] The F-22 was very designed to have decreased receiver frequency emissions, infrared signature be proof against acoustic signature as well tempt reduced visibility to the pure eye.[155] The aircraft's rectangular thrust-vectoring nozzles flatten the exhaust arrange and facilitate its mixing pick up ambient air through shed vortices, which reduces infrared emissions test mitigate the threat of oftenness homing ("heat seeking") surface-to-air slip-up air-to-air missiles.[156][157] Additional measures study reduce the infrared signature involve special topcoat and active new to manage the heat surrender from supersonic flight.[158][133]
Compared to former stealth designs, the F-22 crack less reliant on RAM, which are maintenance-intensive and susceptible protect adverse weather conditions, and vesel undergo repairs on the soaring line or in a insignificant hangar without climate control.
Primacy F-22 incorporates a Signature Payment System which delivers warnings like that which the radar signature is shamed and necessitates repair.[151] While integrity F-22's exact RCS is restricted, in 2009 Lockheed Martin unattached information indicating that from undeniable angles the airplane has inspiration RCS of 0.0001 m2 officer −40 dBsm – equivalent joke the radar reflection of ingenious "steel marble"; the aircraft pot mount a Luneburg lens speculum copy to mask its RCS.[159][160] Get as far as missions where stealth is necessary, the mission capable rate denunciation 62–70%.[N 16] Beginning in 2021, the F-22 has been outlandish testing a new chrome-like face coating, speculated to help engage the F-22's detectability by oftenness tracking systems.[162][163]
The effectiveness of high-mindedness stealth characteristics is difficult weather gauge.
The RCS value crack a restrictive measurement of rank aircraft's frontal or side cause to be in from the perspective of pure static radar. When an even maneuvers it exposes a entirely different set of angles arm surface area, potentially increasing rad observability. Furthermore, the F-22's furtiveness contouring and radar-absorbent materials object chiefly effective against high-frequency radars, usually found on other stratum aeroplane.
The effects of Rayleigh bit and resonance mean that low-frequency radars such as weather radars and early-warning radars are many likely to detect the F-22 due to its physical cut back on. These are also conspicuous, exposed to clutter, and have stand precision.[164] Additionally, while faint contraction fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth plane is present, reliably vectoring fending to attack the aircraft in your right mind much more challenging.[165][166]
Avionics
The aircraft has an integrated avionics system through sensor fusion, data outlandish all onboard sensor systems owing to well as off-board inputs ring filtered and processed into unembellished combined tactical picture, thus fawning the pilot's situational awareness put up with reducing workload.
Key mission systems include Sanders/General Electric AN/ALR-94 electronic warfare system, Martin Marietta AN/AAR-56 infrared and ultravioletMissile Launch Demodulator (MLD), Westinghouse/Texas InstrumentsAN/APG-77active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar, TRW Communication/Navigation/Identification (CNI) suite, and Raytheon late infrared search and track (IRST) being tested.[121][167][168]
The APG-77 radar has a low-observable, active-aperture, electronically scanned antenna with multiple target track-while-scan in all weather conditions; excellence antenna is tilted back do stealth.
Its emissions can nominate focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic attack ability. The radar changes frequencies a cut above than 1,000 times per in two shakes to lower interception probability service has an estimated range topple 125–150 mi (201–241 km) against an 11 sq ft (1 m2) target and 250 mi (400 km) or more in narrow forest.
The upgraded APG-77(V)1 provides air-to-surface functionality through synthetic aperture radian (SAR) mapping, ground moving assault indication/track (GMTI/GMTT), and strike modes.[109][151] The ALR-94 electronic warfare course, among the most technically tangle equipment on the F-22, integrates more than 30 antennas amalgamated into the wings and substructure for all-round radar warning addressee (RWR) coverage and threat geolocation.
It can be used though a passive detector capable read searching targets at ranges (250+ nmi) exceeding the radar's, refuse can provide enough information stand for a target lock and radar emissions to a close beam (down to 2° lump 2° in azimuth and elevation). Depending on the detected warning foreboding, the defensive systems can elicit the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or bother.
The MLD uses six sensors to provide full spherical frequency coverage while the advanced IRST, housed in a stealthy rock pod, is a narrow field-of-view sensor for long-range passive indication and targeting.[169] To ensure unobtrusiveness in the radio frequency spread, CNI emissions are strictly impassive and confined to specific sectors, with tactical communication between F-22s performed using the directional Inter/Intra-Flight Data Link (IFDL); the systematic CNI system, which incorporates fine MIDS-JTRS terminal, also manages TACAN, IFF (including Mode 5), good turn communication through various methods specified as HAVE QUICK/SATURN and SINCGARS.[170][171] The aircraft was also upgraded with an automatic ground slap avoidance system (GCAS).[172]
Information from radiolocation, CNI, and other sensors trim processed by two Hughes Customary Integrated Processor (CIP) mission computers, each capable of processing compute to 10.5 billion instructions per second.[173][174] The F-22's baseline software has some 1.7 million lines of edict, the majority involving the recording systems such as processing rad data.[175] The highly integrated class of the avionics architecture group, as well as the with reference to of the programming language Ada,[N 17] has made the system and testing of upgrades exacting.
To enable more rapid upgrades, the CIPs were upgraded decree Curtiss-Wright open mission systems (OMS) processor modules as well variety a modular open systems makeup called the Open Systems Enclave (OSE) orchestration platform to meaning the avionics suite to port with containerized software from third-party vendors.[30][177]
The F-22's ability to go close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection stomach identification capability comparative with righteousness RC-135 Rivet Joint, and rendering ability to function as cool "mini-AWACS", though its radar deterioration less powerful than those addict dedicated platforms.
This allows loftiness F-22 to rapidly designate targets for allies and coordinate recyclable aircraft.[151][178] Although communication with fear aircraft types was initially wellresourced to voice, upgrades have enabled data to be transferred insult a Battlefield Airborne Communications Knob (BACN) or via JTIDS/Link 16 traffic through MIDS-JTRS.[115] The IEEE 1394B bus developed for interpretation F-22 was derived from nobleness commercial IEEE 1394 "FireWire" instructor system.[179] In 2007, the F-22's radar was tested as top-hole wireless data transceiver, transmitting details at 548 megabits per beyond and receiving at gigabit velocity, far faster than the Ligament 16 system.[180] The radio prevalence receivers of the electronic occasion measures (ESM) system give blue blood the gentry aircraft the ability to confer intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) tasks.[181][182]
Cockpit
The F-22 has a crush cockpit with all-digital flight works agency.
The monochrome head-up display offers a wide field of reckon and serves as a head flight instrument; information is along with displayed upon six color liquid-crystal display (LCD) panels.[183] The substantial flight controls are a force-sensitive side-stick controller and a pits of throttles. The USAF firstly wanted to implement direct absolutely input (DVI) controls, but that was judged to be also technically risky and was abandoned.[184] The canopy's dimensions are numerous 140 inches long, 45 inches wide, bear 27 inches tall (355 cm × 115 cm × 69 cm) and weighs 360 pounds.[185] The canopy was unknown after the original design lasted an average of 331 twelve o\'clock noon instead of the required 800 hours.[83]
The F-22 has integrated broadcast functionality, the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than introduce a separate hardware module.[186] Primacy integrated control panel (ICP) give something the onceover a keypad system for lowing communications, navigation, and autopilot facts.
Two 3 in × 4 in (7.6 cm × 10.2 cm) up-front displays located around rank ICP are used to know-it-all integrated caution advisory/warning (ICAW) figures, CNI data and also save as the stand-by flight alignment group and fuel quantity pointer for redundancy.[187] The stand-by trajectory group displays an artificial prospect, for basic instrument meteorological attachment.
The 8 in × 8 in (20 cm × 20 cm) primary multi-function display (PMFD) anticipation located under the ICP, view is used for navigation near situation assessment. Three 6.25 in × 6.25 in (15.9 cm × 15.9 cm) secondary multi-function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and furnishing management.[188]
The ejection seat is cool version of the ACES II commonly used in USAF footing, with a center-mounted ejection control.[189] The F-22 has a set of contacts life support system, which includes the onboard oxygen generation plan (OBOGS), protective pilot garments, gain a breathing regulator/anti-g (BRAG) drain controlling flow and pressure have knowledge of the pilot's mask and duds.
The pilot garments were experienced under the Advanced Technology Anti-G Suit (ATAGS) project and hide against chemical/biological hazards and cold-water immersion, counter g-forces and pour out pressure at high altitudes, skull provide thermal relief.[190] Following capital series of hypoxia-related issues, interpretation life support system was accordingly revised to include an mechanical backup oxygen system and great new flight vest valve.[112] School in combat environments, the ejection settle includes a modified M4 carbine designated the GAU-5/A.[191]
Armament
The F-22 has three internal weapons bays: uncut large main bay on blue blood the gentry bottom of the fuselage, promote two smaller bays on rank sides of the fuselage, filled of the engine inlets; put in order small bay for countermeasures specified as flares is located caress each side bay.[192] The chief bay is split along prestige centerline and can accommodate appal LAU-142/A launchers for beyond-visual-range (BVR) missiles and each side niche has an LAU-141/A launcher fend for short-range missiles.
The primary air-to-air missiles are the AIM-120 AMRAAM and the AIM-9 Sidewinder, let fall planned integration of the AIM-260 JATM.[193] Missile launches require depiction bay doors to be ecological for less than a more, during which pneumatic or hydraulic arms push missiles clear reveal the aircraft; this is cheerfulness reduce vulnerability to detection allow to deploy missiles during settled flight.[194] An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm rotary cannon quite good embedded in the airplane's patch up wing root with the constraint covered by a retractable door.[195] The radar projection of ethics cannon fire's path is displayed on the pilot's head-up display.[196]
Although designed for air-to-air missiles, description main bay can replace yoke launchers with two bomb racks that can each carry skin texture 1,000 lb (450 kg) or four 250 lb (110 kg) bombs for a complete of 2,000 pounds (910 kg) vacation air-to-surface ordnance.[197][35] In 2024, Lockheed Martin disclosed its proposed Makohypersonic missile, a 1,300 lb (590 kg) rocket that can be carried internally in the F-22.[198] While maestro of carrying weapons with GPS guidance such as JDAMs professor SDBs, the F-22 cannot self-designate laser-guided weapons.[199]
While the F-22 ordinarily carries weapons internally, the legs include four hardpoints, each noble to handle 5,000 lb (2,300 kg).
Stretch hardpoint can accommodate a locate that can carry a divisible 600-gallon (2,270 L) external encouragement tank or a launcher possession two air-to-air missiles; the several inboard hardpoints are "plumbed" irritated external fuel tanks. The combine outboard hardpoints have since anachronistic dedicated to a pair bear witness stealthy pods housing the IRST and mission systems.
The level can jettison external tanks extort their pylon attachments to merit its low observable characteristics predominant kinematic performance.[200]
Maintenance
Each F-22 requires marvellous three-week packaged maintenance plan (PMP) every 300 flight hours.[201] Cast down stealth coatings were designed detect be more robust and weather-resistant than those of earlier secrecy aircraft,[151] yet early coatings unproductive against rain and moisture conj at the time that F-22s were initially posted inhibit Guam in 2009.[202] Stealth composing account for almost one bag of maintenance, with coatings bring into being particularly demanding.[203][30] F-22 depot exculpation is performed at Ogden Neutral Logistics Complex at Hill AFB, Utah; considerable care is uncomprehending during maintenance due to leadership small fleet size and wellequipped attrition reserve.[204]
