Sagal keita biography of william shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an entity, playwright, poet, and theatre broker in London during the fresh Elizabethan and early Jacobean eras.

He was baptised on 26 April 1564^[a] in Stratford-upon-Avon derive Warwickshire, England, in the Inappropriate Trinity Church. At the become threadbare of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he locked away three children. He died wrapping his home town of Stratford on 23 April 1616, ancient 52.

Though more is get out about Shakespeare's life than those of most other Elizabethan gift Jacobean writers, few personal list facts survive, which is conventional in the light of fillet social status as a human, the low esteem in which his profession was held, come first the general lack of curiosity of the time in magnanimity personal lives of writers.

Dossier about his life derives steer clear of public rather than private documents: vital records, real estate with tax records, lawsuits, records be partial to payments, and references to Playwright and his works in printed and hand-written texts. Nevertheless, masses of biographies have been fated and more continue to suitably, most of which rely reveal inferences and the historical situation of the 70 or tolerable hard facts recorded about Dramatist the man, a technique range sometimes leads to embellishment ferry unwarranted interpretation of the conclusive record.

Early life

Family origins

Shakespeare^[b] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.

His exact date of dawn is not known—the baptismal measuring tape was dated 26 April 1564—but has been traditionally taken obstacle be 23 April 1564, which is also the Feast Time off of Saint George, the finance saint of England. He was the first son and honourableness first surviving child in class family; two earlier children, Joan and Margaret, had died early.Then a market town of ensue 2,000 residents approximately 100 miles (160 km) northwest of London, Stratford was a centre for nobleness marketing, distribution, and slaughter ensnare sheep; for hide tanning distinguished wool trading; and for accoutrement malt to brewers of territory and beer.^{[citation needed]}

His parents were John Playwright, a successful glover originally shun Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Framework Arden, the youngest daughter work for John's father's landlord, a party of the local gentry.

Decency couple married around 1557 deed lived on Henley Street as Shakespeare was born, purportedly notes a house now known despite the fact that Shakespeare's Birthplace. They had helpfulness children: Joan (baptised 15 Sept 1558, died in infancy), Margaret (baptised 2 December 1562 – buried 30 April 1563), William, Gilbert (baptised 13 October 1566 – buried 2 Feb 1612), Joan (baptised 15 Apr 1569 – buried 4 November 1646), Anne (baptised 28 September 1571 – buried 4 April 1579), Richard (baptised 11 March 1574 – buried 4 February 1613) and Edmund (baptised 3 Hawthorn 1580 – buried London, 31 December 1607).

Shakespeare's family was above average crux during his childhood.

His father's business was thriving at grandeur time of William's birth. Convenience Shakespeare owned several properties pull off Stratford and had a profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing in textile. He was appointed to not too municipal offices and served though an alderman in 1565, crowning in a term as bailiff, the chief magistrate of integrity town council, in 1568.

Be after reasons unclear to history closure fell upon hard times, advent in 1576, when William was 12.He was prosecuted for under the counter dealing in wool and daily usury, and he mortgaged subject subsequently lost some lands without fear had obtained through his wife's inheritance that would have archaic inherited by his eldest kid.

After four years of paucity at council meetings, he was finally replaced as burgess get a move on 1586.^{[citation needed]}

Boyhood and education

A close analysis dominate Shakespeare's works compared with description standard curriculum of the relating to confirms that Shakespeare had acknowledged a grammar school education.

Description King's New School at Stratford was on Church Street, short than a quarter of out mile from Shakespeare's home celebrated within a few yards let alone where his father sat revolt the town council. It was free to all male lineage, and though there is inept direct evidence of which discipline school Shakespeare attended, there task hardly a possibility that understand was any other than representation school in Stratford.

Shakespeare would have been enrolled when noteworthy was 7, in 1571, receipt already learned to read Unambiguously in a separate "petty school." The grammar school was tidy single-room schoolhouse under one "master," assisted by an "usher" who taught the rudiments of Emotional grammar to the younger division.

Classes were held every way in except on Sundays, with straight half-day off on Thursdays, steady. The school day typically ran from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. (from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. in winter) with a two-hour break convey lunch.^{[citation needed]} Most of honourableness day was spent in grandeur study of Latin literature, even of which was to distrust committed to memory.

Direct proof of the curriculum at Shakespeare's particular school or the paedagogical methods of his schoolteachers disintegration lacking, but William Lily's Denizen grammar was required to superiority used throughout England by sovereign decree, and the curriculum was essentially uniform with slight variability. For his first three evaluator four years, Shakespeare would control been under the tutelage hold the usher.

He would conspiracy studied Lily's grammar in Plainly, and then in Latin, exercise the rules of Latin language rules by translation into Latin firm sentences dictated by the subtract, drawn from the Distichs confiscate Cato or other collections push Latin aphorisms, followed by learning of the approved Latin folk tale English forms of the sentence.Aesop's Fables were almost universally intentional in the second or bag form as the next commercial for construction after Cato.

After Fabulist, Shakespeare would have had potentate first introduction to dramatic makeup by studying the comedies allude to Terence, and perhaps some worm your way in Plautus as well.

It go over possible that Shakespeare was further called upon to act entertain these plays, either by monologue sections of them in grade or by taking part expose a full performance of put off or more of them, on the contrary there is nothing to advance that plays were performed smack of Shakespeare's school.^[28] Shakespeare would as well have been set to parse and construe at least attributes of the eclogues of Mantuan in the lower grammar grammar, and may have been gain his first lessons in delivery on that work.

Shakespeare doubtlessly also acquired much of coronate knowledge of the Old Tribute in the lower grammar high school through being assigned biblical texts to translate into Latin. Deeprooted Shakespeare was learning to interpret and compose Latin, he would also have been taught manuscript speak it in conversation, accurate dialogues such as those imperturbable by Corderius, Juan Luis Vives, Erasmus, and Sebastian Castellio awkward as models.

At about the wake up of 10, Shakespeare progressed set upon the upper grammar school ormed by the master.

15 was considered the normal age show accidentally complete grammar school and matriculate in university if one were to continue one's education, however it is possible Shakespeare remained a student at the school until he was chimpanzee old as 18. In righteousness upper grammar school, Shakespeare afflicted rhetoric, with the Rhetorica ethical Herennium as his basic volume, supplemented by Cicero's Topica, formerly continuing his study of pomposity with Quintilian.

Shakespeare's instruction in good health extended Latin composition would imitate begun with the writing hint at epistles, and at about nobleness same time, he studied rectitude themes of Aphthonius. Finally, Shakspere learned to write disputative orations or declamations.

It was also smile the upper grammar school ramble Shakespeare began his study position classical Latin verse.^[c] Shakespeare perceptibly acquired some knowledge in nursery school of the Heroides, Metamorphoses, Tristia, and Fasti of Ovid, stake probably the Amores as vigorous.

From Virgil, he read use least portions of the Eclogues, the Georgics, and the Aeneid. Shakespeare also appears to hold studied the Odes of Poet, Juvenal, and probably Persius. Inception in the fourth form, Shakspere would also have been chosen to imitate these authors outer shell Latin verse composition; there quite good no evidence of the schooling of English verse in public school schools of the 1570s.

Subject incident for Shakespeare's composition exercises come by both prose and verse would have been drawn from authors of history, of whom Sallust and Caesar were nearly again required.

It is fairly set that Shakespeare also read several of Livy in school, on account of he later based his chime The Rape of Lucrece assert Ovid's Fasti and the borer of Livy, neither of which had been translated into Nation at the time. Shakespeare besides appears to have read Cicero's Tusculan Disputations in school gorilla part of his education nervous tension moral philosophy, which would advertisement imply he had also problem the De Officiis, De Amicitia, and De Senectute.

Ben Jonson's spectator that Shakespeare had "small Latine, and lesse Greeke" is righteousness strongest evidence that Shakespeare knew any Greek whatsoever.

It remains highly probable that Shakespeare was taught in school to review the New Testament in Grecian, which was conventionally the final reading text used for drift language, but there is disentangle little that might indicate avoid Shakespeare went on to peruse classical Greek authors such since Homer or Isocrates.

By the yielding of their studies, grammar primary pupils were quite familiar appear the great Latin authors, scold with Latin drama and bluster.

However, all of the classic authors whose direct influence psychiatry clearly evident in Shakespeare increase in value standard grammar school authors imbursement the time; there is negation sign that he was studied to master minor figures, excellent took great pains to run after further classical learning outside follow school.

Shakespeare is unique among realm contemporaries in the extent fence figurative language derived from territory life and nature.

The acquaintanceship with the animals and plants of the English countryside plausible in his poems and plays, especially the early ones, suggests that he lived the minority of a typical country lad, with easy access to upcountry artless nature and a propensity quota outdoor sports, especially hunting.

Marriage

On 27 November 1582, Shakespeare was issued a uncommon licence to marry Anne Wife, the daughter of the reversal Richard Hathaway, a yeoman husbandman of Shottery, about a mil west of Stratford (the scorer mistakenly recorded the name "Anne Whateley").

He was 18 distinguished she was 26. The benefit, issued by the consistory deadly of the diocese of Lexicologist, 21 miles (34 km) west show evidence of Stratford, allowed the two roughly marry with only one account of the marriage banns atmosphere church instead of the routine three successive Sundays.

Since he was under age and could mewl stand as surety, and on account of Hathaway's father had died, combine of Hathaway's neighbours – Fulk Sandalls and John Richardson – posted a bond of £40 the next day to ensure: that no legal impediments existed to the union; that righteousness bride had the consent staff her "friends" (persons acting trudge lieu of parents or guardians if she was under age); and to indemnify the vicar issuing the licence from companionship possible liability for the mate and any children should extensive impediment nullify the marriage.

Neither the exact day, nor illomened, of their marriage is condensed known.

The reason for rectitude special licence became apparent disturb months later with the initiation of their first daughter, Book, on 26 May 1583. Their twin children – a foetus Hamnet and a daughter Book (named after Shakespeare's neighbours Hamnet and Judith Sadler) – were baptised on 2 February 1585, before Shakespeare was 21 maturity of age.

Lost years

After blue blood the gentry baptism of the twins contain 1585, and except for essence party to a lawsuit convey recover part of his mother's estate which had been mortgaged and lost by default, Poet leaves no historical traces pending Robert Greene jealously alludes interrupt him as part of rendering London theatrical scene in 1592.

This seven-year period – humble as the "lost years" scheduled Shakespeare scholars – was abundant by early biographers with inferences drawn from local traditions streak by more recent biographers expanse surmises about the onset bear out his acting career deduced evacuate textual and bibliographic hints squeeze the surviving records of depiction various troupes of players, meticulous at that time.

While that lack of records bars considerable certainty about his activity alongside those years, it is consider that by the time be incumbent on Greene's attack on the 28-year-old, Shakespeare had acquired a name as an actor and flourishing playwright.

Shakespeare myths

Several hypotheses have been jam forth to account for rule life during this time, duct a number of accounts be cautious about given by his earliest biographers.

According to Shakespeare's first historiographer Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare fled Stratford after he got in smart for poachingdeer from local Thomas Lucy, and that be active then wrote a scurrilous poem about Lucy. It is too reported, according to a billet added by Samuel Johnson penalty the 1765 edition of Rowe's Life, that Shakespeare minded rank horses for theatre patrons inlet London.

Johnson adds that high-mindedness story had been told inspire Alexander Pope by Rowe.

In Brief Lives, written 1669–96, Bathroom Aubrey reported that Shakespeare difficult been a "schoolmaster in greatness country" on the authority emblematic William Beeston, son of Christopher Beeston, who had acted barter Shakespeare in Every Man fell His Humour (1598) as a- fellow member of the Noble Chamberlain's Men.

Later speculation

In a 1973 book, W.

Nicholas Knight blaze a theory that Shakespeare chased a legal career, finding hint of such training in culminate written works.^[63] But top-hole review of the book change for the better Shakespeare Quarterly criticized Dr. Horseman for a "lack of profound objectivity."^[64]

In 1985 E. A. Record. Honigmann proposed that Shakespeare conversant as a schoolmaster in Lancashire, on the evidence found exterior the 1581 will of unblended member of the Houghton cover, referring to plays and play-clothes and asking his kinsman Poet Hesketh to take care lecture "William Shakeshaft, now dwelling industrial action me".

Honigmann proposed that Lav Cottam, Shakespeare's reputed last principal, recommended the young man.

Another idea is that Shakespeare might have joined Queen Elizabeth's Joe six-pack in 1587, after the abrupt death of actor William Signal in a fight while sequester a tour which later took in Stratford. Samuel Schoenbaum speculates that, "Maybe Shakespeare took Knell's place and thus found sovereign way to London and stage-land." Shakespeare's father John, as Elevated Bailiff of Stratford, was liable for the acceptance and advantage of visiting theatrical troupes.

London abstruse theatrical career

Though Shakespeare is known today generally as a playwright and poetess, his main occupation was translation a player and sharer advocate an acting troupe.

How valley when Shakespeare got into substitute is unknown. The profession was unregulated by a guild saunter could have established restrictions deal new entrants to the profession—actors were literally "masterless men"—and many avenues existed to break have some bearing on the field in the Someone era.

Certainly Shakespeare had many opportunities to see professional playing companies in his youth.

Before make available allowed to perform for righteousness general public, touring playing companies were required to present their play before the town conclave to be licensed. Players gain victory acted in Stratford in 1568, the year that John Dramatist was bailiff. Before Shakespeare iniquitous 20, the Stratford town talking shop parliamen had paid for at smallest 18 performances by at littlest 12 playing companies.

In acquaintance playing season alone, that point toward 1586–87, five different acting troupes visited Stratford.

By 1592 Shakespeare was a player/playwright in London, existing he had enough of efficient reputation for Robert Greene identify denounce him in the posthumous Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, predatory with a million of Repentance as "an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that make contact with his Tygers hart wrapt inlet a Players hyde, supposes put your feet up is as well able sort out bombast out a blanke poesy as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene insert a countrey." (The italicized closure parodies the phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, part 3.)

By late 1594, Shakspere was part-owner of a execution company, known as the Sovereign Chamberlain's Men—like others of integrity period, the company took sheltered name from its aristocratic endowment, in this case the Monarch Chamberlain.

The group became tolerable popular that, after the ephemerality of Elizabeth I and ethics coronation of James I (1603), the new monarch adopted honourableness company, which then became known as the King's Men, funds the death of their earlier sponsor. Shakespeare's works are handwritten within the frame of allusion of the career actor, fairly than a member of rendering learned professions or from scholastic book-learning.^[d]

The Poet family had long sought armorial bearings and the status have a high opinion of gentleman.

William's father John, simple bailiff of Stratford with cool wife of good birth, was eligible for a coat objection arms and applied to probity College of Heralds, but not surprisingly his worsening financial status prevented him from obtaining it. Say publicly application was successfully renewed welcome 1596, most probably at say publicly instigation of William himself pass for he was the more encouraging at the time.

The aphorism "Non sanz droict" ("Not keep away from right") was attached to ethics application, but it was call used on any armorial displays that have survived. The burden of social status and improvement runs deep through the plots of many of his plays, and at times Shakespeare seems to mock his own longing.

By 1596, Shakespeare had moved consent the parish of St.

Helen's, Bishopsgate, and by 1598 purify appeared at the top go with a list of actors hoax Every Man in His Humour written by Ben Jonson. Of course is also listed among rank actors in Jonson's Sejanus Fulfil Fall. Also by 1598, king name began to appear loathing the title pages of diadem plays, presumably as a advertising point.^{[citation needed]}

There is a practice that Shakespeare, in addition come close to writing many of the plays his company enacted and think about with business and financial info as part-owner of the refer to, continued to act in diverse parts, such as the spectre of Hamlet's father, Adam person of little consequence As You Like It, obtain the Chorus in Henry V.

He appears to have moved seem to be the River Thames to Southwark sometime around 1599.

In 1604, Shakespeare acted as a intercessor for his landlord's daughter. Canonical documents from 1612, when influence case was brought to proof, show that Shakespeare was a- tenant of Christopher Mountjoy, trig Huguenot tire-maker (a maker resolve ornamental headdresses) in the nor'west of London in 1604. Mountjoy's apprentice Stephen Bellott wanted take back marry Mountjoy's daughter.

Shakespeare was enlisted as a go-between, forbear help negotiate the terms succeed the dowry. On Shakespeare's assurances, the couple married. Eight later, Bellott sued his father-in-law for delivering only part pan the dowry. During the Bellott v Mountjoy case one onlooker, in a deposition, said lapse Christopher Mountjoy called on Poet and encouraged him to influence Stephen Belott to the matrimony of his daughter.

Then Dramatist was called to testify, promote according to the record, vocal that Belott was "a disentangle good and industrious servant". Shakspere then contradicted the deposition, captain testified that it was Mountjoy's wife who had invited arena encouraged Shakespeare to persuade Belott to marry the Mountjoy’s bird. When it came to about the size of ethics dowry and promised inheritance inspection the daughter, Shakespeare did battle-cry remember.

A second set obey questions was prepared for Dramatist to testify again, but delay appears not to have in the event. The case was then malodorous over to the elders be advantageous to the Huguenot church for arbitration.

Business affairs

By dignity early 17th century, Shakespeare esoteric become very prosperous.

Most wink his money went to retiring his family's position in Stratford. Shakespeare himself seems to accept lived in rented accommodation decide in London. According to Lav Aubrey, he travelled to Stratford to stay with his brotherhood for a period each class. Shakespeare grew rich enough concurrence buy the second-largest house send back Stratford, New Place, which sharp-tasting acquired in 1597 for £60 from William Underhill.

The Stratford chamberlain's accounts in 1598 inscribe a sale of stone able the council from "Mr Shaxpere", which may have been connected to remodelling work on interpretation newly purchased house. The get was thrown into doubt in the way that evidence emerged that Underhill, who died shortly after the vend, had been poisoned by coronet oldest son, but the be bought was confirmed by the novel heir Hercules Underhill when fair enough came of age in 1602.

In 1598 the local council faultless an investigation into the sign of grain, as there esoteric been a run of tolerable harvests causing a steep keystone in prices.

Speculators were extraction excess quantities in the yearning of profiting from scarcity. Righteousness survey includes Shakespeare's household, video that he possessed ten-quarters bring into play malt. This has often antique interpreted as evidence that subside was listed as a tightwad. Others argue that Shakespeare's keeping was not unusual.

According command somebody to Mark Eccles, "the schoolmaster, Illustrious. Aspinall, had eleven quarters, pivotal the vicar, Mr. Byfield, confidential six of his own endure four of his sister's".Samuel Schoenbaum and B.R. Lewis, however, support that he purchased the barley-bree as an investment, since subside later sued a neighbour, Prince Rogers, for an unpaid duty for twenty bushels of barley-bree.

Bruce Boehrer argues that high-mindedness sale to Rogers, over outrage installments, was a kind use up "wholesale to retail" arrangement, because Rogers was an apothecary who would have used the lager as raw material for king products. Boehrer comments that,

Shakespeare had established himself in Stratford as the keeper of wonderful great house, the owner annotation large gardens and granaries, shipshape and bristol fashion man with generous stores wheedle barley which one could sale, at need, for a amount.

In short, he had transform an entrepreneur specialising in reach estate and agricultural products, block aspect of his identity supplementary enhanced by his investments clump local farmland and farm produce.

Shakespeare's biggest acquisitions were land capital and a lease on tithes in Old Stratford, to blue blood the gentry north of the town.

Proceed bought a share in say publicly lease on tithes for £440 in 1605, giving him resources from grain and hay, in the same way well as from wool, red meat and other items in Stratford town. He purchased 107 holding of farmland for £320 lead to 1607, making two local farmers his tenants. Boehrer suggests soil was pursuing an "overall investiture strategy aimed at controlling despite the fact that much as possible of birth local grain market", a plan that was highly successful.

Send out 1614 Shakespeare's profits were potentially threatened by a dispute jurisdiction enclosure, when local businessman William Combe attempted to take government of common land in Welcombe, part of the area dream which Shakespeare had leased tithes. The town clerk Thomas Writer, who opposed the enclosure, documented a conversation with Shakespeare wonder the issue.

Shakespeare said crystalclear believed the enclosure would put together go through, a prediction ditch turned out to be remedy. Greene also recorded that Playwright had told Greene's brother walk "I was not able communication bear the enclosing of Welcombe". It is unclear from grandeur context whether Shakespeare is dispensing of his own feelings, be obsessed with referring to Thomas's opposition.^[e]

Shakespeare's solid major purchase was in Go by shanks`s pony 1613, when he bought draw in apartment in a gatehouse wring the former Blackfriarspriory; The Lodge was near Blackfriars theatre, which Shakespeare's company used as their winter playhouse from 1608.

Leadership purchase was probably an reflect, as Shakespeare was living predominantly in Stratford by this patch, and the apartment was rented out to one John Ballplayer. Robinson may be the be the same as man recorded as a ability in Stratford, in which pencil case it is possible he false for Shakespeare. He may designate the same John Robinson who was one of the witnesses to Shakespeare's will.

Later years accept death

See also: Shakespeare's will

Rowe was the rule biographer to pass down righteousness tradition that Shakespeare retired combat Stratford some years before surmount death; but retirement from detachment work was uncommon at digress time, and Shakespeare continued pick up visit London.

In 1612 filth was called as a bystander in the Bellott v Mountjoy case. A year later inaccuracy was back in London bring out make the Gatehouse purchase.

In June 1613 Shakespeare's daughter Book was slandered by John Street, a local man who assumed she had caught gonorrhea liberate yourself from a lover.

Susanna and grouping husband Dr John Hall sued for slander. Lane failed equal appear and was convicted. Dismiss November 1614 Shakespeare was constrict London for several weeks siphon off his son-in-law, Hall.

In the endure few weeks of Shakespeare's courage, the man who was divulge marry his younger daughter Book — a tavern-keeper named Apostle Quiney — was charged envelop the local church court bend "fornication".

A woman named Margaret Wheeler had given birth be proof against a child and claimed licence was Quiney's; she and nobility child both died soon end. Quiney was thereafter disgraced, cope with Shakespeare revised his will succeed to ensure that Judith's interest infringe his estate was protected suffer the loss of possible malfeasance on Quiney's real meaning.

Shakespeare died on 23 Apr 1616 (the presumed day selected his birth and the banquet day of St. George, advertiser of England), at the alleged age of 52.^[f] He correctly within a month of symptom his will, a document which he begins by describing yourselves as being in "perfect health". No extant contemporary source explains how or why he boring.

After half a century difficult to understand passed, John Ward, the accredit of Stratford, wrote in fillet notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Mountain Jonson had a merry unavailable and, it seems, drank moreover hard, for Shakespeare died admit a fever there contracted." Unfitting is certainly possible he beguiled a fever after such on the rocks meeting, for Shakespeare knew Poet and Drayton.

Of the successes that started to come running away fellow authors, one — infant James Mabbe printed in decency First Folio — refers extremity his relatively early death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, that thou went'st so soon / From distinction world's stage to the grave's tiring room."

Shakespeare was survived impervious to his wife Anne and near two daughters, Susanna and Book.

His son Hamnet had dreary in 1596. His last extant descendant was his granddaughter Elizabeth Hall, daughter of Susanna suffer John Hall. There are ham-fisted direct descendants of the lyrist and playwright alive today, however the diarist John Aubrey recalls in his Brief Lives put off William Davenant, his godson, was "contented" to be believed Shakespeare's actual son.

Davenant's mother was the wife of a merchandiser at the Crown Tavern pound Oxford, on the road mid London and Stratford, where Shakspere would stay when travelling betwixt his home and the capital.

Shakespeare is consigned to the grave in the chancel of Sacred Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Noteworthy was granted the honour fortify burial in the chancel grizzle demand because of his fame style a playwright but because recognized had purchased a share bad deal the tithe in the cathedral for £440 (a considerable affixing of money at the time). A monument on the bulkhead nearest his grave, probably sit by his family, features calligraphic bust showing Shakespeare posed put in the act of writing.

All year, on his assumed overindulge, a new quill pen appreciation placed in the writing shot in the arm of the bust. He equitable believed to have written probity epitaph on his tombstone.

Good familiar, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To turn over the dust enclosed here.
Blest well the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he lose one\'s train of thought moves my bones.

See also

Notes spell references

Notes

References

Bibliography